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Abstract
Transgenerational trauma refers to the lasting psychological and physiological effects of traumatic experiences that are passed from parents to their children. These effects can shape emotional well-being, behavior, and health outcomes in the next generation, arising from learned behavior, disrupted family dynamics, and environmental stressors. Increasing evidence also suggests that biological processes may contribute to this transmission. The purpose of this review is to explore how acute, chronic, and complex forms of trauma are transmitted across generations, with a focus on epigenetic mechanisms and parenting behaviors. A comprehensive literature review was conducted using PubMed and Google Scholar using keywords transgenerational trauma, intergenerational trauma, epigenetics, and parenting. Peer-reviewed original research and review papers published between 1990-2025 were included. Studies were grouped by trauma type and evaluated for epigenetic outcomes, parenting behaviors, and offspring health effects. Non-peer-reviewed sources were excluded. Across trauma exposures, consistent epigenetic changes were identified in multiple pathways. Stress-response genes within the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis were most frequently studied, with methylation changes noted in NR3C1 and FKBP5. Alterations were also reported in BDNF (neural plasticity) and STAT5B (immune signaling). These changes were commonly linked to increased vulnerability to post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, and depression, as well as immune dysregulation and metabolic disorders in offspring. Trauma-exposed parents often experienced psychological distress that disrupted caregiving, such as emotional withdrawal or inconsistent discipline, which may interact with biological pathways to amplify transmission. Evidence is limited by small sample size, varied designs, inconsistent trauma definitions, and few longitudinal or diverse cohorts. Replication is needed to confirm gene-specific findings. Transgenerational trauma reflects intertwined biological and psychological processes. Epigenetic alterations and disrupted caregiving contribute to offspring vulnerability, highlighting the need for integrated biological, psychological, and social perspectives. Future research should clarify causal pathways to guide potential interventions that can break the cycle of trauma transmission.